Revision notes written to the specification, with examiner tips and the required practicals. Every point here has flashcards in the Stickwise app.
Skill, goal setting & SMART targets
Skills can be placed on a continuum according to how much decision-making they require. A basic skill is simple and needs little decision-making, such as a forward roll, while a complex skill needs many decisions and detailed information processing, such as a rugby side-step.
Skills can also be classified by how much they are affected by the environment. An open skill is affected by the environment and must adapt to it, such as a football pass, while a closed skill is unaffected by the environment and is performed the same way each time, such as a gymnastics vault.
SMART targets
Coaches and performers use goal setting to structure training and keep motivation high. The SMART framework describes what a well-written target should be.
SpecificThe target is clear and exact about what is to be achieved.
MeasurableProgress towards the target can be checked, usually with a number.
AcceptedThe performer and coach agree to the target.
RealisticThe target suits the performer's current ability and circumstances.
Time-boundThe target has a deadline by which it should be reached.
Setting SMART targets gives a performer focused goals and a way to track progress. This keeps motivation high and helps a coach adjust training so that performance keeps improving.
🎯 Examiner tip: Questions that ask for a SMART target are answered best with a real, specific example rather than a vague one, such as 'increasing the number of press-ups completed in one minute from 20 to 25 within six weeks' rather than simply 'getting fitter'. A target like this shows all five letters of SMART within a single, named goal.
Information processing & guidance
The information processing model describes how a performer turns information from their surroundings into an action. It has four stages, moving from what the senses detect through to the performer's next attempt.
InputInformation is gathered from the senses, for example seeing where a defender is standing.
Decision-makingThe performer chooses a response based on the information received.
OutputThe chosen response is carried out.
FeedbackInformation about how the attempt went is received and used to improve the next attempt.
Because the brain cannot process everything at once, a performer relies on selective attention. This means filtering out irrelevant information, such as noise from the crowd, and focusing only on what matters, such as the position of the ball.
Types of guidance
A coach chooses how to guide a performer according to their experience and the skill being learned. Four main types of guidance are used, each suited to a different situation.
Visual guidanceThis means showing a skill through demonstration, video or diagrams. It works well for beginners, who can copy what a skilled performer looks like, and for showing complex movement patterns.
Verbal guidanceThis means giving spoken instructions. It suits experienced performers, who already understand the technical terms being used.
Manual guidanceThis means the coach physically moves the performer's body through the correct action. It suits beginners, who do not yet know what the movement should feel like.
Mechanical guidanceThis means using equipment, such as a float in swimming, to support a beginner and keep them safe while they learn.
Relying too much on manual or mechanical guidance can make a performer over-reliant on the support. They never learn the feel of the skill for themselves, which makes it harder to perform once the guidance is removed. A beginner cannot yet follow complex verbal guidance or technical terms, so visual, manual or mechanical guidance suits them better. An experienced performer, by contrast, can use detailed verbal guidance to fine-tune their technique.
🎯 Examiner tip: Guidance questions are marked more highly when the answer names a specific skill and a specific type of performer, such as explaining why a swimming coach would use mechanical guidance, for example a float, with a beginner rather than relying on verbal instructions the beginner would not yet understand.
Feedback, arousal & mental preparation
Feedback
Feedback after a performance can come from different sources, and it can focus on different things. Some distinctions matter more as a performer becomes more experienced.
Intrinsic feedbackThis is feedback that comes from within the performer, such as the feel of a shot as it is played.
Extrinsic feedbackThis is feedback that comes from an outside source, such as a coach's comments or a scoreboard.
Knowledge of resultsThis is feedback on the outcome of a performance, such as the score or whether a shot went in.
Knowledge of performanceThis is feedback on the quality of the technique used, such as arm position, which suits more experienced performers.
Positive feedbackThis means praising what went right. It works best for beginners, building their confidence and encouraging them to continue.
Negative feedbackThis means pointing out errors. It can suit more experienced performers, who can use it to correct their technique.
Arousal
The inverted U theory describes the relationship between arousal and performance. Performance improves as arousal rises, up to an optimal point, after which further arousal makes performance worse.
Personality and motivation
A performer's personality and motivation also affect how they engage with sport. These ideas are usually explained in contrasting pairs.
AggressionThis is behaviour intended to harm an opponent, either directly, such as a late tackle, or indirectly, through hostile play not aimed at a person.
Assertive behaviourThis is forceful behaviour that stays within the rules, with no intent to harm.
IntrovertThis is a personality type that tends to prefer individual sports with lower arousal, such as darts or golf.
ExtrovertThis is a personality type that tends to prefer team sports or activities that raise arousal, such as rugby, and thrives on excitement and social contact.
Intrinsic motivationThis is motivation that comes from within the performer, such as enjoyment or personal pride.
Extrinsic motivationThis is motivation that comes from external rewards, such as trophies, money or praise from other people.
🎯 Examiner tip: Arousal questions are usually rewarded for describing the shape of the relationship, performance rising then falling, applied to a named situation, rather than just naming the inverted U theory. The same rule applies to personality and motivation: the point is best anchored to a named sport, such as explaining why a rugby player benefits from higher arousal while a darts player performs best at a much lower level.
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